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Abstract:

We present high spatial resolution (≈12 pc) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array 12CO(J = 3–2) observations of the nearby lenticular galaxy NGC 4429. We identify 217 giant molecular clouds within the 450 pc radius molecular gas disc. The clouds generally have smaller sizes and masses but higher surface densities and observed linewidths than those of Milky Way disc clouds. An unusually steep size–linewidth relation ($\sigma \propto R_{\rm c}^{0.8}$) and large cloud internal velocity gradients (0.05–0.91 km s−1 pc−1) and observed virial parameters (〈αobs,vir〉 ≈ 4.0) are found, which appear due to internal rotation driven by the background galactic gravitational potential. Removing this rotation, an internal virial equilibrium appears to be established between the self-gravitational (Usg) and turbulent kinetic (Eturb) energies of each cloud, i.e. $\langle \alpha _{\rm sg,vir}\equiv \frac{2E_{\rm turb}}{\vert U_{\rm sg}\vert }\rangle \approx 1.3$. However, to properly account for both self and external gravity (shear and tidal forces), we formulate a modified virial theorem and define an effective virial parameter $\alpha _{\rm eff,vir}\equiv \alpha _{\rm sg,vir}+\frac{E_{\rm ext}}{\vert U_{\rm sg}\vert }$ (and associated effective velocity dispersion). The NGC 4429 clouds then appear to be in a critical state in which the self-gravitational energy and the contribution of external gravity to the cloud’s energy budget (Eext) are approximately equal, i.e. $\frac{E_{\rm ext}}{\vert U_{\rm sg}\vert }\approx 1$. As such, 〈αeff,vir〉 ≈ 2.2 and most clouds are not virialized but remain marginally gravitationally bound. We show this is consistent with the clouds having sizes similar to their tidal radii and being generally radially elongated. External gravity is thus as important as self-gravity to regulate the clouds of NGC 4429.

Abstract:

Supermassive black hole (SMBH) masses can be measured by resolving the dynamical influences of the SMBHs on tracers of the central potentials. Modern long-baseline interferometers have enabled the use of molecular gas as such a tracer. We present here Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array observations of the elliptical galaxy NGC 7052 at 0′′.11 (⁠37pc) resolution in the 12CO(2-1) line and 1.3 mm continuum emission. This resolution is sufficient to resolve the region in which the potential is dominated by the SMBH. We forward model these observations, using a multi-Gaussian expansion of a Hubble Space Telescope F814W image and a spatially constant mass-to-light ratio to model the stellar mass distribution. We infer an SMBH mass of 2.5±0.3×109M⊙ and a stellar I-band mass-to-light ratio of 4.6±0.2M⊙/L⊙,I (3σ confidence intervals). This SMBH mass is significantly larger than that derived using ionized gas kinematics, which however appears significantly more kinematically disturbed than the molecular gas. We also show that a central molecular gas deficit is likely to be the result of tidal disruption of molecular gas clouds due to the strong gradient in the central gravitational potential.