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Abstract:

Understanding the link between outer giant planets ( and inner light planets ( is key to understanding planetary system formation and architecture. The correlation between these two populations of planets is debated both theoretically -- different formation models predict either a correlation or an anticorrelation -- and observationally. Several recent attempts to constrain this correlation have yielded contradictory results, due to small-number statistics and heterogeneous samples. We present an ongoing long-term observational effort with CORALIE, HARPS, and ESPRESSO to probe the occurrence in systems with and without In this first article of a series, we discuss how, from the design to the observations, we ensured the homogeneity of the samples, both in terms of stellar properties and observing strategy. We also present the first three detections of in our host sample. We find a planet at around a planet at around and we confirm the planet at around . While a rigorous statistical analysis of our samples will be performed in subsequent studies, the relatively low number of detections in our sample seems to contradict previous studies that found a strong correlation.

Abstract:

The architecture of planetary systems is a key piece of information to our understanding of their formation and evolution. This information also allows us to place the Solar System in the exoplanet context. An important example is the impact of outer giant planets on the formation of inner super-Earths and sub-Neptunes. Radial velocity (RV) surveys aim at drawing statistical insights into the (anti-)correlations between giants and inner small planets, which remain unclear. These surveys are limited by the completeness of the systems, namely, the sensitivity of the data to planet detections. Here, we show that we can improve the completeness by accounting for orbital stability. We introduce the Algorithm for the Refinement of DEtection limits via N-body stability Threshold (ARDENT), an open-source Python package for detection limits that include the stability constraint. The code computes the classic data-driven detection limits, along with the dynamical limits via both analytical and numerical stability criteria. We present the code strategy and illustrate its performance on TOI-1736 using published SOPHIE RVs. This system contains an eccentric cold giant on a 570-day orbit and an inner sub-Neptune on a 7-day orbit. We demonstrate that no additional planet can exist in this system beyond 150 days due to the gravitational influence of the giant. This outcome allows us to significantly refine the system completeness and also carries implications for RV follow-ups. ARDENT is user-friendly and can be employed across a wide variety of systems to refine our understanding of their architecture.

Abstract:

Context. Solar flux atlases observe the spatially integrated light from the Sun, treating it as a star. They are fundamental tools for gaining insight into the composition of the Sun and other stars. They are utilised as reference material for a wide range of solar applications such as stellar chemical abundances, atmospheric physics, stellar activity, and radial velocity signals. Aims. We provide a detailed comparison of solar activity reported in some of the well-known solar atlases against the new High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher for the Northern hemisphere (HARPS-N) Quiet Sun (QS) and Measured Activity (MA) atlases published, for the first time, in this work. Methods. Ten of the widely used individual spectral lines from each flux atlas were selected to compare solar activity based on three methods: (1) equivalent widths; (2) a novel activity measure introduced in this work and referred to as the activity number; and (3) bisectors and radial velocity. Results. The significantly smaller activity levels measured in the MA atlas, compared to the other atlases, relative to the QS atlas, underscores the dominance of instrumental effects over solar activity in their impact on spectral lines, which cannot be corrected through simple line convolution to match resolutions of other atlases. Additionally, our investigation unexpectedly revealed a substantial intensity shift in the Ca  II H & K lines of other atlases compared to our HARPS-N atlases, likely resulting from the assumptions made when applying normalisation techniques for the early Kitt Peak atlases. Conclusions. With an average spot number of zero, our QS atlas is well suited to serve as an absolute benchmark atlas representative of solar minimum for the visible spectrum, which other atlases can be compared against. Our recommendations going forward include: (1) the publication of a detailed log along with the observations to include exact dates and indications of solar activity; and (2) given the dominance of instrumental effects over variations caused by activity, quiet Sun reference atlases must be constructed with the same instruments to ensure high precision.

Abstract:

Context . Active regions on the stellar surface can induce quasi-periodic radial velocity (RV) variations that can mimic planets and mask true planetary signals. These spurious signals can be problematic for RV surveys such as those carried out by the ESPRESSO consortium. Aims . Using ESPRESSO and HARPS RVs and activity indicators, we aim to confirm and characterise two candidate transiting planets from TESS orbiting a K4 star with strong activity signals. Methods . From the ESPRESSO FWHM, TESS photometry, and ASAS-SN photometry, we measure a stellar rotation period of 21.28 ± 0.08 d. We jointly model the TESS photometry, ESPRESSO and HARPS RVs, and activity indicators, applying a multivariate Gaussian process (GP) framework to the spectroscopic data. Results . We are able to disentangle the planetary and activity components, finding that TOI-2322 b has a 11.307170 −0.000079 +0.000085 d period, close to the first harmonic of the rotation period, a ≤2.03 M ⊕ mass upper limit and a 0.994 −0.059 +0.057 R ⊕ radius. TOI-2322 c orbits close to the stellar rotation period, with a 20.225528 −0.000044 +0.000039 d period; it has a 18.10 −5.36 +4.34 M ⊕ mass and a 1.874 −0.057 +0.066 R ⊕ radius. Conclusions . The multivariate GP framework is crucial to separating the stellar and planetary signals, significantly outperforming a one-dimensional GP. Likewise, the transit data is fundamental to constraining the periods and epochs, enabling the retrieval of the planetary signals in the RVs. The internal structure of TOI-2322 c is very similar to that of Earth, making it one of the most massive planets with an Earth-like composition known.

Abstract:

As radial velocity (RV) spectrographs reach unprecedented precision and stability below 1 m s, the challenge of granulation in the context of exoplanet detection has intensified. Despite promising advancements in post-processing tools, granulation remains a significant concern for the EPRV (extremely precise radial velocity) community. We present a pilot study to detect and characterize granulation using the High-Accuracy Radial-velocity Planet Searcher for the Northern hemisphere (HARPS-N) spectrograph. We observed HD 166620, a K2 star in the Maunder Minimum phase, intensely for two successive nights, expecting granulation to be the dominant nightly noise source in the absence of strong magnetic activity. After correcting for a newly identified instrumental signature, originating from CCD illumination variations under optimal seeing conditions, we detected the granulation signal using structure-function (SF) analysis and a single-component Gaussian process (GP) model. The granulation signal has a characteristic time-scale of min, within 1, and a standard deviation of cm s, within 3 of the predicted value. By examining spectra and RVs as a function of line formation temperature, we investigated the sensitivity of granulation-induced RV variations across different photospheric layers. We extracted RVs from various photospheric depths using both the line-by-line and cross-correlation function methods to mitigate any extraction method biases. Our findings indicate that granulation variability is detectable in both temperature bins, with the cooler bins, corresponding to the shallower layers of the photosphere, aligning more closely with predicted values.